The variation of underglaze-blue and underglaze-red in Yuan and Ming dynasties. (1279-1644)

Foreword:

Chinese ceramics has been second to none all over the world and in the history of art. In the development of ceramics, porcelains in underglaze-blue and underglaze-red have been considered the most magnificent artifacts. By introducing the variation of underglaze-blue and underglaze-red in Yuan and Ming dynasties, it helps us to know the background knowledge and the uniqueness of porcelains. Porcelains in underglaze-blue represent the most orient characteristic at all times. Its elegance and beauty fascinate men’s eyes and its characteristics varied in different dynasties. During each period, the advance of craftsmanship, the variation of cobalt pigment, and the diversity of decoration style promote underglaze-blue porcelain to achieve the steadfast position in the history of Chinese art and culture. As well, porcelain in underglaze-red represents the most skillful underglaze artifact. Although the successful firing techniques of underglaze-red porcelain had been discovered in Yuan dynasty, underglaze-red porcelains of high quality are still rare and valuable to this day. Thus, the background knowledge about manufacture and craftsmanship of underglaze-blue and underglaze-red in Yuan and Ming dynasties will be introduced in this article. Underglaze-blue in Yuan dynasty will be introduced in next section.

I. Underglaze-blue in Yuan dynasty

Introduction

Porcelains in underglaze-blue started in Tang dynasty (618-907), but the golden age was in Yuan dynasty (1279-1368). Until 1929, underglaze-blue porcelain from Yuan dynasty had been noticed by a British, Mr. R. I. Hobson. He had discovered a vase with elephant handles and underglaze-blue decoration of clouds and dragons, and it is collected by Percival David Foundation in U.K. Since then, the studies of underglaze-blue porcelains from Yuan dynasty started the journey and spread worldwide. In the beginning of 1950’s, Dr. John Alexander Pope compared this vase with other underglaze-blue porcelains from the National Museum of Teheran and the topkapi palace museum. He then distinguished a batch of underglaze-blue porcelains from Yuan dynasty, and discovered the same features with this vase. He named those underglaze-blue porcelains “Zhi-Zheng Type”. Till then, underglaze-blue porcelains from Yuan dynasty had been recognized and valued by scholars and organizations of Chinese antique ceramics.

In addition, underglaze-blue porcelains are decorated with cobalt pigment before glazing. The most delicate underglaze-blue porcelains are manufactured from Jingdezhen (Ching-Te-Chen) in Yuan dynasty. In 1278, the imperial court of Yuan dynasty founded “Fuliang Ceramics Bureau” in Jingdezhen. “Fuliang Porcelain Bureau” was the only national administrative organization in charge of managing ceramics industry. The establishment was written in the eighty-eight volume of History of Yuan dynasty-numerous officers’ novel. It recorded “Fuliang Ceramics Bureau was instituted in 1278 as ninth level of official rank, and in charge of ceramics manufacture. Two administrators were appointed to Fuliang Ceramics Bureau.” This bureau was the specialized department of ceramic production for emperor and imperial court. It facilitated the booming of ceramic industries in Jingdezhen. Except kiln in Jingdezhen, there were kilns in Jian of Jiangxi province, Jiangshan of Zhejiang province, and Yuxi of Yuennan province for manufacturing underglaze-blue porcelain in Yuan dynasty. However, Jingdezhen had kilns at most and was the premier production center for underglaze-blue porcelains of high quality. Refine and exquisite porcelains were produced with steady, gorgeous, and bright color. The following statement by Jiang Qi of Yuan dynasty, which is taken from his book entitled “Tao-lun-fu” (Ceramics Study), mentioned the finest quality of porcelains from Jingdezhen. “There were more than three hundreds kilns in Jingdezhen. Ceramics were composed immaculate white as genuine jade.” In short, the following is introduction of underglaze-blue in Yuan dynasty, including classification, characteristics, pigment, and clay.

Classification

Underglaze-blue porcelains in Yuan dynasty can be divided into “Yan-you Type” and “Zhi-zheng Type” base on differences of cobalt pigment and decoration. The development was from “Yan-you Type” to “Zhi-zheng Type”.

A. Yan-you Type

Yan-you type of porcelains used native-made pigment, which presented light blue color, so decorations became broad with brief lines and focused on small wares. Jiujiang museum in Jiangxi province collects a typical ware of Yan-You Type, and it is tower-shape vase with underglaze-blue decoration of peony from a tomb in 1319. This vase presented slightly grayish blue, which was darken in the area of deepen and ended painting. The area accumulated some small brown drops and clear brown color appeared at dark glazing area.

B. Zhi-zheng Type

Zhi-zheng type was painted with imported pigment and appeared gorgeous color. Most decorations were intensive and had multi-layers on large wares. The typical ware is vase with elephant handles and underglaze-blue decoration of clouds and dragons collected by Percival David Foundation in U.K. This vase showed dense and gorgeous blue, and visible yellowish brown or sliver iron rust spots appeared at thick glazed area.

Characteristics

The early development of underglaze-blue porcelains in Yuan dynasty carried the characteristics of preceding generation, Song dynasty (960-1279). Porcelains were painted roughly on light and thin clay body. Small folk wares were produced in the majority. Native-made pigment was used for decoration, therefore presented dark grayish blue without iron rust spots. Later, porcelains were stepping into middle stage and developing to Yan-you type. At this time, quantity and advancement of porcelain manufacture were making huge progress. Underglaze-blue porcelains appeared to attain toward maturity after observing unearthed porcelains. Those porcelains had thinly clay body and started to use Ma-cang clay, which appeared slightly caesious and light white with obvious air holes. More to say, native-made, imported, and mixture of both pigments were applied on porcelains, which presented not only gorgeous color with dense black spots but dark gray without iron rust spots. At last, Zhi-zheng type turned out to be typical ware in late stage of development. The manufacture of underglaze-blue porcelains had reached its peak, and large wares with high quality were produced increasingly, mostly from Jingdezhen. Imported pigments were massively applied for decoration on entire ware. The multi-layer decoration is often painted with seven to nine layers, even ten layers.

Pigment

There is close relationship among imported pigment (Su-ma-li Blue), Jingdezhen, and underglaze-blue in Yuan dynasty (1279-1368). The imported pigment, Su-ma-li Blue, was mainly used in Yong-le and Xuan-de periods (1426-1435). The pigment was introduced to ancient China from West Asia region. The importation had been mentioned in the book, “Kui-tian-wai-chen”, which was written by Wang Shi-mao(1536-1588). He stated, “Our imperial court establishes specialized porcelain manufacture in Jingdezhen in Fuliang County. Imperial Porcelains made in Yong-le and Xuan-de periods were still highly valued to date. At that time, the most frequent produce was sweet white porcelains with orange peel effect. The most used pigment was Su-ma-li blue. The most precious porcelain was bright red porcelain.”

In early stage of Yuan dynasty, native-made pigment was used, but imported pigment “Su-ma-li blue” was adopted first by Jingdezhen in late Yuan and early Ming period. According to “Pottery Record of Ching-Te-Cheng” written by Lan Pu, he mentioned, “Su-ma-li blue was shipped from Southeast Asia or West”. Since then, underglaze-blue porcelains were the most famous and representative goods in Jingdezhen up to now. It showed that Su-ma-li blue made huge influence on underglaze-blue porcelains.

Clay

Before Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), clay that was used for porcelain manufacture made of porcelain stone. The clay had low fire durability and high changeability, so small wares were mainly made due to the clay features. After Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), Kaolin or China clay that was better used for porcelain manufacture was discovered in Ma village. The following statement by Lan Pu in his book “Pottery Record of Ching-Te-Cheng” mentioned, “Porcelain clay mainly came from Ma-cang village or called Ma village”. The Ma-cang clay (Clay from Ma-cang village) was generally called as kaolin nowadays. It was nearly running out during 1573 and 1620. Moreover, researchers had discovered that binary formula of clay was invented in Yuan dynasty. The formula was the mixture of porcelain stone and kaolin (formerly called Ma-cang clay). The invention increased durability of high temperature and steady formation of ware. It also raised hardness and transparency of clay, but reduced plasticity. For this reason, large wares adopted sectioned throwing and gluing. The innovational clay advantaged manufacturing high quality of large underglaze-blue porcelains.

II. Underglaze-blue in Ming dynasty

Introduction

The development of underglaze-blue porcelains in Ming dynasty was divided into three stages according to differences of pigment. There were early, middle, and late developments. The early development was during the reigns of Yong-le (1403-1424) and Xuan-de (1426-1435), and Su-ma-li blue pigment was applied. The middle development was during the reigns of Cheng-hua (1465-1487), Hong-zhi (1488-1505), and Zheng-de (1506-1521), and Ping-deng blue pigment was applied. At last, the late development was during the reigns of Jia-jing (1522-1566), Long-qing (1567-1572), and Wan-li (1573-1620), and Hui blue pigment was applied.

A. The early development

According to excavations and researches by Institute of Jingdezhen Ceramic Archaeology, pigment (Su-ma-li blue) used in Yuan dynasty lasted to Hong-wu reign (1368-1398) of early Ming dynasty. However, underglaze-blue presented different color due to differences of glaze, firing temperature, and firing atmosphere. At that time, war cut off transportation of imported pigment, so native-made pigment was adopted on porcelain manufacture. This made some porcelain had dark blue color. Underglaze-blue porcelains in Hong-wu reign (1368-1398) mostly had characteristics of heavy and thick clay body, dull color of glaze, blurry bluish gray tone, and dim pigment.

In Yong-le period (1403-1424), underglaze-blue porcelains used Su-ma-li blue. In the third volume of “Pottery”, it said “Imperial Porcelains made in Yong-le and Xuan-de reigns possessed the characteristics of frequently used sweet white color with orange-peel effect, decorative pigment of Su-ma-li blue, and precious bright red color.” Gao Lian, the author of “Zun-sheng-ba-Jian”, stated “Pigement used in Xuan-de kiln was Su-bo-ni blue”. The literature, “History of Ming dynasty”, mentioned that eunuch Zheng He made the voyage to the Western Ocean in 1405. This travel exported trade porcelains from Yuan and Ming dynasties, and imported pigment from Southeast Asia and West Asia. The imported pigment was Su-ma-li blue, whose name varied due to different transliteration, but actually meant the same pigment.

Since then, the imported pigment, Su-ma-li blue, was used in Yong-le period (1403-1424). This pigment contained low concentration of manganese and reduced purple and red tone in blue color. When firing climate was properly perfect, gorgeous sapphire porcelains were produced. Nevertheless, Su-ma-li blue pigment also contained high concentration of iron, and made black spots appear on decorative lines. The decorative lines were diffused, blur, and obviously embedded into clay body.

Furthermore, underglaze-blue porcelains were beautiful and elegant in Xuan-de period (1426-1435). Xuan-de kiln was evaluated in “Study of Antique Bronze and Ceramic Wares” by Liang Tong-shu. It said, “Xuan-de kiln had excellence in pigment, ware form, decoration, and inscription.” Another example by Zhang Ying-wen in “Treasures from Qing Dynasty” illustrated “Xuan-de wares were fine and thick, having the surface effect of an orange peel.” It also said, “Underglaze-blue porcelains used Su-bo-ni blue for decorating dragons, phoenixes, flowers, birds, insects, fishes, and so on. The decorations looked cubic, multi-layer, and lovely.”

Besides, the biggest distinction between Xuan-de (1426-1435) and Yong-le (1403-1424) porcelains is the penetrating spots of blue, which is obvious apparent on underglaze-blue porcelains from Xuan-de period. There were also iron rust spots scattered on the surface of ware and they looked patchy and thrifty. It was also the penetrating iron rust spots mentioned in “Note of Na kiln”. Many delicate and compact underglaze-blue porcelains were produced in Xuan-de (1426-1435) and Yong-le (1403-1424) period. Large dishes and bowls were neat with lesser changeability.

B. The middle development

In Cheng-hua period (1465-1487), a few underglaze-blue porcelains made in early period contained black spots due to Su-ma-li blue pigment. Products which were large manufactured with typical form were famous for graceful blue. Furthermore, imported pigment (Su-ma-li blue) and native-made pigment (Ping-deng blue) were applied on the same ware. Ping-deng blue pigment contained low concentration of iron and high concentration of manganese. Thus, the pigment presented graceful and steady color. According to the third volume of “Pottery”, it mentioned “Su-ni-bo blue pigment used for underglaze-blue wares in Xuan-de kiln exhausted in Cheng-hua period (1465-1487)”. From the statement, Su-ma-li blue pigment had use up and was displaced by native-made pigment, Ping-deng blue. Due to the low concentration of iron, there were not black spots exited on porcelains. Then, the common characteristics of underglaze-blue porcelains from Cheng-hua period (1465-1487) were thin clay body, bright white glaze, and graceful blue.

In Hong-zhi period (1488-1505), the color of underglaze-blue was similar to Cheng-hua period (1465-1487). Both had features of thin clay body, exquisite glaze quality, clear and bright white clay, and glassy glaze with slight green tint. Yet the glaze quality in Cheng-hua period (1465-1487) was sleeker and smoother than Hong-zhi period (1488-1505). On the other hand, underglaze-blue porcelains in Hong-zhi period (1488-1505) were similar to early stage of Zheng-de period (1506-1521). Nevertheless, porcelains in Zheng-de period (1506-1521) presented less pure color than in Hong-zhi period (1488-1505). The reason was that Ping-deng blue was nearly using up. Therefore, native-made pigment was mixed with other pigments in late stage of Zheng-de period (1506-1521). It made underglaze-blue porcelains from Zheng-de period (1506-1521) present grayish blue color. Besides, the porcelains had characteristics of thick and heavy clay body, bluish glaze, and dense air bubbles in glaze layers.

C. The late development

It was recorded in “Note of Na kiln” that “Jia-jing kiln used Hui blue, which presented dense and gorgeous color”. This attested Hui blue pigment was used in Jia-jing reign (1522-1566). Hui blue pigment contained the lowest concentration of iron, so there were not black spots on underglaze-blue porcelains in Jia-jing period (1522-1566) but in Xuan-de (1426-1435) and Yong-le (1403-1424) period. Moreover, Hui blue pigment contained the highest concentration of manganese, so underglaze-blue porcelains appeared dense and gorgeous color with slight red and purple. Underglaze-blue in Jia-jing period (1522-1566) used not only Hui blue pigment, but mixed with Shi-zi blue from Rui province. “Jiangxi Da Zhi” recorded Hui blue presented different color due to different additional ingredients.

In Long-qing period (1567-1572), the style of underglaze-blue porcelains basically was extended from Jia-jing period (1522-1566). Hui blue pigment was still applied on porcelains. However, nearly exhausted Ma-cang clay had lower quality and influenced color of porcelain clay, which appeared slight blue, slight green or slight yellow, etc. After that, underglaze-blue porcelains in early stage of Wan-li period (1573-1620) had the same style as in Jia-jing period (1522-1566). Nevertheless, there is obvious difference between blue tones in both periods. After Jia-jing period (1522-1566), amount of Hui blue pigment was decreasing rapidly because of large manufacture and requirement. Thus, Hui-blue pigment was preciously used due to deficient source. In middle stage of Wan-li period (1573-1620), underglaze-blue porcelains used Zhe pigment from Zhe-jiang province. Those porcelains presented slightly grayish blue and expressed calm impression.

III. Influence of kiln temperature on underglaze-blue color

Formation of porcelains required proper temperature, so variety of firing temperature influenced underglaze-blue quality a lot. From 1955 to 1956, a test on underglaze-blue pigment was launched by Institute of Jingdezhen Ceramic Archaeology and Institute of Metallurgy and Ceramics of Chinese Science Academy. Some representative formula was tested at different temperatures. The result was listed below.

(This result was only for reference. There might be gap due to two firing kilns. Samples which were fired at 1280 degrees centigrade were tested in large type of firewood kiln in Jingdezhen. On the other hand, samples which were fired at 1350 degrees centigrade were tested in small type of coal kiln in Institute of Metallurgy and Ceramics of Chinese Science Academy in Shanghai. )

IV Underglaze-red

Underglaze-red porcelains were the important and innovative technique invented by artificers in Jingdezhen in Yuan dynasty. The craft and process were almost the same as underglaze-blue. Underglaze-red was decorated with copper red pigment on white clay body before glazing glassy glaze. After firing in kiln, the porcelains became underglaze-red porcelains.

The development of underglaze-red was much later than underglaze-blue. Successful manufacture of underglaze-red porcelains required not only appropriate firing atmosphere but perfect proportion of glaze, which related to the concentration of copper element and the efficient inducement of copper red pigment in glaze. Successful underglaze-red porcelains were developed in Jingdezhen till Yuan dynasty (1279-1368). Sensitive nature of copper red pigment during the firing process had led to imperfect color and undesirable smears of line works. Copper became rather unstable and easily volatilizes as temperature rises over 1250℃. High concentration of copper led to blackish red color, and low firing temperature let to gray color. Thus, pure and bright red underglaze-red porcelains are rare and precious. Although underglaze-red porcelains were scarce in Yuan dynasty, delicate underglaze-red porcelains of high quality were still mastered. For example, a covered jar with underglaze-red decoration is regarded as the top porcelain in Yuan dynasty for its gorgeous red, and is now stored in Wu county of Jiangsu province. The jar was decorated with three sets of decorations on body and white dragon on red ware belly.

In Ming dynasty, underglaze-red porcelains appeared grayish red in Hong-wu period (1368-1398). An antique used in Hong-wu period (1368-1398) had been excavated from the Palace Museum site of Ming dynasty in Nanjing. It was ancient eaves tile made of white porcelain and used for palace. The tile was molded with dragon and phoenix decoration and then glazed over with red glaze. Even though the red color appeared dark and grayish, the tile was put to use on palace. It proved that the techniques of underglaze-red porcelain and red glaze manufacture were immature in early Ming dynasty. After Yong-le (1403-1424) and Xuan-de (1426-1435) periods, underglaze-red or red glazed wares were still deficient in temperature control and glaze proportion, but some excellent and gorgeous ruby wares were still produced. The following statement in “Zun-sheng-ba-Jian” mentioned the maturity of underglaze-red porcelains. It stated “A cup with underglaze-red decoration of fishbone was made in Xuan-de period (1426-1435). Its ruby pigment decorated fish shape over white clay body, and presented glittering and gorgeous red that was superior to purplish black.” The statement mentioned that manufacture craft had reached its maturity at that time. After the middle stage of Ming dynasty, the techniques were declining and few underglaze-red wares were produced, mostly small wares with grayish color. Only wares in Cheng-hua period (1465-1487) presented bright and dense red, and were excellent enough to compete with Yong-le (1403-1424) and Xuan-de (1426-1435) periods. In late Ming dynasty, underglaze-red wares were only manufactured in imperial kilns. Folk kilns manufactured few amount of underglaze-red wares and mostly small wares.

Until Kang-xi reign (1661-1722) of Qing dynasty, the production of underglaze-red porcelains was rebuilt and constructed higher level over Ming dynasty. Basically, the firing techniques and steadiness of coloration were skillfully mastered by artificers. In Yong-zheng (1723-1736) and Qian-long (1736-1795) periods, bright and gorgeous underglaze-red wares presented clear decoration with light and heavy tones. Techniques of manufacturing underglaze-red porcelains had reached success and maturity, and were superior to dynasties after Jia-qing period (1796-1820).

V. Reference:

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