Jar with underglaze-blue illustration of emperor Tang Tai-zong

Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), Gao-an kiln, Unmarked

Height：29.8 cm

Mouth Diameter：19.3 cm
Bottom Diameter：18.6 cm

Weight：6260 g

This jar features an erect neck, handsome shoulder, round belly, and flared foot. Its ware form came from combining two separately shaped parts together. This was a classic example of vessels produced in Yuan dynasty. Below the neck with billows decoration, there is decoration of Chinese historical story from Tang dynasty (618-907) on the body that was complemented by various stones, flowers, plantain foliage, and so on. Transparent white glaze with a tinge of blue conveys a glittering sensation.

Seal and Seal Mark

I. Introduction

Seal plays a crucial role and represents a trust of credit and commitment in Chinese world, no matter in daily life, in society, in the past, and at present. Request for seal and signature will be occurring in various situations, regardless of official or private occasions. Seal is also used by Chinese calligrapher and painter while conducting their artworks. Signature and seal of the artist on a painting is the way of showing recognition and uniqueness. Hence, these marks on painting are essential evidences for distinguishing genuine works.

II. History of seal

A. Origin

Seal was called “Imperial Seal” (Xi) in ancient China and its origin is considered to start in Neolithic age by archaeologists, who discover that seal developed from imprinted decoration on potteries. In 1930, Mr. Huang bin-hong listed many instances of pottery script consistent with antique seal in his published book, “Proof of Words on Pottery and Seal”. He proved that seal was used for name sign on pottery and found that decoration marks by imprinted mold appeared on earliest pottery. As well, Mr. Na Zhi-liang stated two kinds of decorations on pottery in his book “General Definition of Seal” in 1970. He mentioned that one decoration is applied tapping method, and the other is imprinted decoration made by pottery mold or stone mold. Later, the decoration mold advanced to mold carved with words, and the mold gradually become Seal (Pottery seal).

Imprinting mold spread from Neolithic age to Warring States Period (475–221 B.C.). At that time, some of the molds were applied by pottery maker, and some became implements of power and trust. During Spring and Autumn Period (722 - 476B.C.) and Warring States Period (475–221 B.C.), unrest politics and growing economy fostered seal development from official representation to civil implement among trust documentation.

B. Appellation and characteristic

Seal had different appellation in different dynasties. In Shang dynasty (1600-1066 B.C.) or before Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.), seal was called “Ancient Shu” or “Shu”. After that, “Xi” (Imperial Seal) was named, and changed to “Yin” or “Zhang” in the reign of Wu emperor in Han dynasty (206 B.C. – 220 A.D.). When time shifted to Tang dynasty, Wu empress called Seal “Bao” (treasure). Alias of seal was added like “Ji” or “Zhu Ji” after Southern and Northern dynasties (420-581). When stepping into Song dynasty (960-1279), “Tu Shu” became new name of seal due to mistaken alias through tradition.

Seal in Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) was similar to signature in modern days. “Yuan-Ya” was signature in seal form, which was carved with last name on top and flower signature (distinct picture) on seal bottom in rectangle shape of seal. Furthermore, official seal of Ming dynasty (1368-1644) was named “Yin” in square shape, and named “Guan Fang” or “Tiao Ji” in rectangle shape. In Qing dynasty (1644-1911), seal had various names, such as “Chuo Ji”, “Chou Zi”, and “Shou Chou”. Afterward, official seal was called “Yin” or “Zhang” and private seal was called “Si Ji”, “Tu Shu”, and “Tu Zhang” on account of distinguishing differences.

However, Seal from different periods carried certain features that included material, shape, size, center of gravity, carving line, carving design of words, frame, and word type. Besides, the seal inscription was mostly related to official title, name, and few propitious blessing before Tang dynasty (618-907). Then, seal gradually developed into two purposes thereafter. One purpose is to carry on practical use of seal, as like official and documentary identification in modern time. The other is art seal that possessed both practical and art value, and developed from “Name of studio” in Tang dynasty.

The prime minister of Tang dynasty (618-907), Li Mi, was the first one had seal inscription in name of his private studio, Duan Ju Shi. Afterward in Song (907-1279) and Yuan (1279-1368) dynasties, seals added content of inscription like alias, storage, poetry, idiom, and so on. Thus, the purpose of seal not only expanded in practical use but raised artistic value for appreciation and collection.

III. Character arrayal of seal

“Zhangfa” is the word arrayal of seal and its importance is like design chart of architecture. Owing to the difference in structure of seal characters, the character arrayal carried various artful changes that are divided into twelve kinds as follows. (Figures as reference)

A. Position Density: Each Chinese character occupies same measure of area on seal bottom no matter with simple or multiple strokes. For this reason, alternate methods are applied to perform well-balanced position density. For instance, natural spacing method is consisted of dense character with multiple strokes and thin character with simple strokes. Another is to apply complementary method that is composed of slim multiple strokes and stout simple strokes. Natural and perfect position density is seen on square seal with incision of “Tao Lu You Hao Chi Zhai” by Wang, bing-tie.

B. Carving Strength: Carving strength differs while writing seal characters, carving and molding artworks. Some natural situations happened occasionally, such as thin stroke made by quick cool down on outline while molding process or abrasion on seal with wide characters and thin frame. Thus, balance of carving strength on seal characters forms aroma of heavy left with light right or heavy top with light bottom. Giving an example of boxy seal with incision of “Dong Ling Qiao Ren” by Qi, Bai-shi, it presents natural taste in virtue of word type with vertical strokes in needle end (heavy top and light bottom).

C. Stroke Variation: In order to harmonize seal characters on seal bottom, simple or multiple strokes of seal character are added more or less strokes flexibly on account of rules of character formation, evolution of calligraphy, and etc. Four seal characters with three multiple strokes and one simple stroke vary to total four characters with multiple strokes. On the other hand, four seal characters have three characters with simple strokes and one character with multiple strokes that is simplified. Square seal bottom with carving of “Hui Shu Shou Jiao” by Zhao, Zhi-qian possessed two characters with multiple strokes and the other two with simple strokes. Balance of characters on seal bottom is achieved by simplifying “Shu”.

D. Shape Alteration: Seal character alter its shape on the basis of character stroke most in round shape. After Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.), there was a trend that prolonging down stroke of seal character. Great seal character is consisted of applying decent shape alteration and standard writing rules. The rectangle seal bottom with incision of “Zhu Shan” (Bamboo Mountain) by Wu, Chan-Shuo harmonized spacing by prolonging “Zhu” for matching with short “Shan”.

E. Structure Correspondence: Each seal bottom needs to pay attention on structure correspondence of seal character, whose harmony is affected by character’s shape, size, and number of strokes. Citing an instance on square seal bottom with incision of “Dao Zai Wa Pi” by Zhao, Gu-ni, impression of structure correspondence was formed by two characters with multiple strokes (Dao, Pi) and two characters with simple strokes (Zai, Wa) in cross corner. “Zai” was carved as “Cai” because both characters are the same word in ancient seal character.

F. Size Proportion: Seal character has features of multiple strokes, simple strokes, and changeable shape, therefore balance of seal bottom is achieved by adjusting size and position of seal characters. The boxy seal bottom with incision of “Wu Xi Zai Yin” by Wu, Rang-zhi presents proportioned size of seal characters by enlarging two characters with multiple strokes (Xi, Zai).

G. Interlaced Arrangement: Interlaced arrangement is to blend characters together and demonstrate natural vividness. There is an ancient seal (Gu Ni) with two characters (Shou Jing) on round seal bottom. “Shou” is located in right top corner and possesses fourth area of whole seal bottom. On the other hand, “Jing” occupies three-fourths area of whole seal bottom and its entire stokes are scattered around “Shou”.

H. Character Variation: When same character appeared repeatedly in seal inscription, seal character will change its shape to perform artistic style. Seal bottom with incision of “Wo Zhi Wei Wo, Zi You Wo Zai” by Feng, Kang-hou shows cheery aroma in virtue of three “Wo” character in different shapes.

I. Alternative Incision: According to character’s attribute or its incision, irrelevant characters are linked together by alternative incision which means seal inscription is carved both in intaglio and in relief (common in seals of Han dynasty – 206. B.C - 220 A.D.). There is an instance from seal in Han dynasty with incision of “Yang Du”. “Yang” on the right was carved in relief (Zhuwen: red character), and “Du” on the left was carved in intaglio (Baiwen: white character).

J. Skillful Carving: Great seal carvers combine skill of writing and carving to perform marvelous impression, regardless of clever or simple artworks. Rectangle seal bottom with incision of “Tian Ya Yi Ti Yi Shen Yao” by Deng, San-mu presents both skillful carving of strokes and dividing line at the same time. Radical on right side of “Ya” and “Yi” characters are carved as center line.

K. Partition Line: Some seal characters do not match properly, so partition line helps portioning out space for each character, just like red grid in calligraphy practicing for orderly writing. Inscription of “Zhen An” by Wu, Chang-shuo shows appropriate use of partition line, which matches two irrelevant characters in a harmony.

L. Stylish Border: The bouquet of a seal relates with seal inscription and seal border. Orderly seal inscription goes with orderly border, and irregular seal inscription goes with irregular border. The seal border was carved irregularly in tone with seal characters by instantiating inscription of “Yan Tian Wu E Sui” by Wang, Fu-Han.

Figure：Twelve kinds of seal bottom in terms of character arrayal

1. Position Density

2. Carving Strength
3. Stroke Variation

4. Shape Alteration
5. Structure Correspondence

6. Size Proportion
7. Interlaced Arrangement

8. Character Variation
9. Alternative Incision

10. Skillful Carving
11. Partition Line

12. Stylish Border

Figures of seal mark derive from Art of Seal Carving by Wang, Bei-yue, p.39-41.


IV. Carving tools and carving skill

Seal characters (Zhuan word) were the common word type of seal in view of line structure. It has features of orderly even strokes, symmetrical structure, and changeable shape. Various impression and conception are created through artistic word patterns by skillful carving.

In addition, ordinary carving knife of seal has a flat blade with two sides of sharp edges, which are raked about 20 to 30 degrees. Wide edge is half centimeter and narrow edge is two millimeter in length. Sharp and thin blade is put to use for detailed carving, and bold carving applies thick and blunt blade.

Blade of carving knife is divided into flat edge for stone carving and oblique edge for carving bamboo or wood. Furthermore, there are two ways of carving methods, such as upright cutting and side cutting. Upright cutting is to use cutting edge straightly. Eighty percent of cutting edge is used for incising stone while leaning knife tool within ten degrees aside vertical. When incising with strength, cutting edge is focused on the center of strokes and shapes irregular sides of stroke owing to extrusion of side edge. The other cutting skill is side cutting which is using side edge for cutting. The cutting edge is held at an angle of fifteen degrees from stone surface and only one side of edge is used while carving. In this case, carved stroke is smooth on one side and irregular on the other side. Thus, upright cutting shapes thinner strokes and side cutting shapes wider strokes. However, stone seal has common size in square of 2 to 9 cm2, so side cutting is mostly used for stone seal carving.

Besides, the ancients often used double hooking of knife holding method which was treated as the only one method of knife holding. Nevertheless, knife holding methods were applied and varied by seal carver in basis of different artworks. There are three kinds of knife holding methods, comprising clenching method, dragging method, and pushing method. When carving large seal, clenching method is put to use. For instance, Mr. Qi Bai-shi applies this method while carving. Pushing method is suitable for carving small seal but the variation of skills depends on personal habits.

After all, there are two ways of using knife. One is called rushing knife, which incises smooth lines and applies upright cutting or side cutting. The other way of using knife is chopping knife that performs flat deep stroke. The chopping knife is to cut deep and forward along with pressing strength, and each cut is about half length of cutting edge. The stroke is completed by several cuts in a row. For instance, Mr. Wu Chang-shuo usually uses rushing knife method to display broadness. Mr. Xu San-gen habitually applies chopping knife method to demonstrate uniform style. Both of them are good at using knife skills. More to say, the way of carving Zhu Wen (red Characters) is usually done by two cuts in one stroke and in opposite direction. However, there is exception that Qi Bai-shi carves Zhu Wen in same direction. While carving Bai Wen (white Characters), one cut in one stroke is called “Single cut” and carving in same direction is called “Double cut”. Besides, Zhu Wen is carved along outline of seal characters and raise embossment of characters. On the other hand, Bai Wen is incised along inner of seal character and become intaglio characters.

Seal carving is the art combines calligraphy and carving skill. In short, there are many ways of using carving tools, but all the methods depend on maturity of personal skill to create special and excellent taste.

V. Seal material and seal paste

Material of seal mainly used gold, silver, copper, and metal materials in early period. Later on, various materials were applied in sort of animal material (rhino horn and ivory), mineral material (jade and semiprecious stones), plant material (bamboo and wood), and artificial material (plastic). Among all the materials, firm seals like copper and jade had been prevailed for long in history of seal development. Wang Mian of late Yuan dynasty combined writing and carving together in material of Hua-lu stone and first demonstrated personal style in a small stone seal area. Since then, seal of personal use chooses material of soft stone that becomes main material of seal carving.

Stone material for carving not only expresses knife skills but possesses a quality that is easy for incising and has hardness between 2.5 and 3 degrees. Above all, Shoushan stone, Blue-field stone, and Changhua stone maintain the best quality and great reputation.

The most high-class stone material for seal is the mildly moist Shoushan stone from Fujian province. It can be divided into three ways of production, including field-pit stone, water-pit stone, and mountain-pit stone. The first sort has the best in field-yellow stone, and the second sort has the best in steatite that is crystal-clear. The third sort has great material from high mountain steatite and Ducheng or Duling pit. Other advanced stone materials comprise clear blue-field steatite of blue, yellow, and white shades from Zhejiang province, and bright Changhua stone of top chicken blood red.

Moreover, good seal has to be provided with good seal paste. Seal with bad seal paste will put into the shade. The lifespan of seal paste is generally between five to ten years. Good seal paste of over confection lasts the same condition for years of using. After keeping covered in ceramic container, paste still remains unchangeably bright new gloss and steady condition after hundreds of years. Even though it has been used, the seal paste naturally presents a luster that still shines while whisking it off.

The main ingredients of seal paste contain cinnabar, stamp-pad oil, and moxa. There is detailed illustration of ancient production of seal paste in the book of Siku Quanshu (translated as the "Imperial Collection of Four"). It mentioned that seal paste is made by dipping sesame oil with Zhoujiao inside porcelain ware before decocting. After it was cooled down, making an agent with Shouai and adding vermilion. Then, taking the red seal paste in the silk bag and turning it over while staying in porcelain or jade ware (avoiding copper ware or tinwork) for days. If oil dried out afterward, repeatedly using fried oil in a ware and making dry paste absorb voluntarily (No pouring oil from top). This method will keep seal paste getting better even last a long time.

VI. Seal Appraisal

General appraisal on renowned painting or artwork included paper era, composition, style, signature mark, and so on. Among them, signature mark contains seal mark comparison whether it is corresponding to personal seal of the artist or not. This job seems like simple but it has certain difficulties because each artist owns various seals in numbers of ten to hundreds.

DCL-CARD will illustrate brief procedure of seal mark comparison via painting of Fu Bao-shi as bellows. At first, setting up files of signature mark and seal mark shown on the painting of Fu Bao-shi. After that, searching similar seal mark record in the book “Seal Mark Collection of Modern Artist”. Then, scan system is applied to produce overprint of seal mark and digital file. Last, meticulously check and confirm the comparison of seal mark.

Painting by Fu Bao-shi from collection of DCL-CARD

Signature mark and seal mark on left right corner of painting by Fu Bao-shi

Seal mark record from the book“Seal Mark Collection of Modern Artist, part II”

Overprint of seal mark from seal mark database

VII. Reference

1. Zhang, Fu-jiang. Si Ku Quan Shu Complete Library in Four Branches of Literature, Beijing: East, Jan. 2004.

2. National Palace Museum. The National Palace Museum Monthly of Chinese Art No.119, Vol. 10, Issue 11. Taipei: National Palace Museum, Feb.1993,

3. Wang, Bei-yue. Art of Seal Carving, Taipei: Han-guang, Jul. 1990.

4. Lu, Fu-sheng. Seal Mark Collection of Modern Artist, part II, Shanghai: Shanghai Painting, Aug. 2004.

5. Chen, Xi-ming et al. Appreciation of Shoushan Stone, Taipei: Hua-Sheng-cheng international art, Nov. 1985.

6. Zhang, Jun-Xun. Investigation of Shoushan Stone, Taipei: Art Book, Apr. 2002.

7. Wang, Jing-zhi. Tian-huang Stone Appraisal, Taipei: Nation, May 2004.

8. Fang, Zong-gui. Shoushan Stone Appraisal, Taipei: Nan-tian, Apr. 1995.

9. Feng, Zuo-min. Record of Chinese Seal, Taipei: Art book, Oct. 1993.

Coherence between Chinese painting and the decoration of underglaze porcelain

I. The origin of Chinese painting

Art is part of culture whose development fosters art advancement. The art of Chinese painting didn’t have exact historical record of origin era, but excavation of painted pottery from the Neolithic Age proved art existence 5000 years ago in China.

Afterward, Chinese art advanced greatly through Shang (1600B.C. - 1066B.C.), Zhou (1066B.C - 221B.C.), Qin (221B.C. - 206B.C.), and Han (206B.C.–220 A.D.) dynasties. It showed that painting art had reached high level and maturity on silk painting from Chang-sha and excavated wall painting from tomb of Han dynasty. The paintings presented dense composition, changeful symmetry, slim line, smooth curve, and dynamic figures.

After Eastern Han dynasty (25 A.D. – 220 A.D.), Buddhism was introduced into China and influenced painting style. Vital painting spirit was flourishing after shifting the culture of Han clan to the South in Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420). Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-581) was in the turmoil of war, so people relied upon Buddhism and created many Buddhist painting art, such as Long-men stone carving and Dunhuang wall painting.

II. Dunhuang wall painting and Chinese painting history

Dunhuang is located in the gateway of the East and the West. Through frequently contact with the Occident had influenced painting in Northern Wei dynasty (386-534), when the figures of Buddhist painting were drawn with undressed body, bold style, diffusion skill, and lighting to highlight modeling. After Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-907) dynasties, painting skill drifted toward Chinese typical drawing skill, which depicts cubby face, modest expression, and smooth lines. Besides, landscape painting of Dunhuang Buddhist wall painting performed cloudy mountain and trees since Western Wei dynasty (535-557), especially increasing after late Tang dynasty (618-907) and Five Dynasties (907-960). The wall painting was gradually adding other life factors, such as officer, civilian, traveler, pavilion, jobs, and joyful dance.

Dunhuang wall painting is only a partial of Chinese painting history, but it comprised a wide range of dynasties and contents, such as methods, composition, and subjects. The wall painting had lasted to Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) since Eastern Jin dynasty (317-439), and covered all sort of classification, involving painting of figure, landscape, bird or flower. Besides, it helped a lot for era judgment of Chinese painting. It can be judged from name and year of believer or painting style that divided into different stages, painting style developments, and art systems.

III. Ink painting and underglaze porcelain

Figure painting had always been the mainstream subject of Chinese painting; however, landscape painting was springing up from Tang dynasty (618-907) and ruling in Northern Song dynasty (960-1127). Landscape symbolizes Mother Nature in the cultural background of Chinese history, particularly in the philosophy of Laozi and Zhuang zi. The philosophy advocated returning to nature and flinging into painting of far-reaching mountain, drifting cloud and vast ocean.

Ink states a very important position in Chinese ink painting. The use of ink is more difficult than the use of brush-pen. The following are the illustration of different methods of using ink, comprising ink amassment, ink permeation, ink splashing, and ink rubbing.

A. Ink amassment

In order to express natural and powerful style of mountain, stone, or tree, artists used light ink for groundwork and then added multiple layers of ink one by one after drying. The ink amassment of separating multi-layer ink is the excellent skill of artists, such as Gong Xian and Wang Yuan-qi of Qing dynasty (1644-1911), Xiao Qian-zhong and Huang Bing-hong of modern time.

B. Ink permeation

Stone was drawn with light ink first and added dark ink dot or light ink on the wet ink. The ink will naturally permeate and dissolve together. The creation of complex ink color is called ink permeation. Shi Tao and Ba-da-shan-ren from early Qing dynasty (1644-1911) were excelled in this method.

C. Ink splashing

Painting was first splashed with abundant ink of dark and light tone, and left for natural permeation and blending. Afterward, slightly strengthening the painting scene and varied with dry inkblot. The ink splashing presents chiefly dark and light ink spots. The contemporary master of Chinese painting, Zhang Da-qian, was good at ink and color splashing. His art pieces display bold and modern sensation.

D. Ink rubbing

Ink rubbing is new skill applied by modern artist of ink painting. The skill is using paper or other materials to make ink rubbing from objects. It also can be rubbing from creasy objects or coarse wood and stone. Moreover, artists were pouring dark ink into water basin and putting India paper on the water surface of spreading ink in order to catch fluid ink mark. Artists created different impressions by applying with many different ways of ink rubbing technique, including ink dropping, ink spraying, rubbing, vitriol spotting, color applying, etc.

The first Chinese doctor for ceramics, Xiong Liao mentioned that the brushwork in Yuan (1279-1368) and middle Ming (1368-1644) dynasties was called Tuo-sui method which was applied on underglaze porcelain. While drawing on unglazed clay body, strong stroke took away powder on clay and made clay easy to sink.

In middle and late Ming dynasty, Tuo-sui method was gradually replaced by Fen-sui method, which was also called Hun-sui method and was thriving in Kang-xi period (1662-1722) of Qing dynasty. The Fen-sui method is that contour was filled up with high-class pigment which contains 82 to 96 percents of water. In order to create impression of Chinese ink painting under flat glaze surface after firing, the clay surface was painted with pigment without touch of brush. The color gradation is divided into five levels, or even nine levels. It is like five levels of ink color in Chinese ink painting, so decorations of underglaze porcelains differentiate from Chief Dark, Pure Dark, Secondary Dark, Pure Light, and Shadowy Light.

IV. Chinese painting and underglaze porcelain in Yuan and Ming dynasties

The most distinguish underglaze porcelains were decorated with figure stories, such as “General Meng-tian” and “Yu-chi Gong rides to rescue his master”. Decoration on underglaze porcelains was as Chinese painting, which focuses on figures and adorn with patterns, comprising mountain, stone, plantain, pine, bamboo, plum, flower scrolls, and billows.

The design and brushwork of Yuan dynasty had the same feature and styles, no matter those are in underglaze porcelains or in Chinese painting. Artist in Yuan dynasty placed importance on artistic conception of painting created by brush and ink. There are specific brushworks, including depiction of figures and dress, brushwork of bamboo, willow, rocky mountain, and pine tree, gradation of dotting, or distance scene. It can be apprehended with paintings of Luo-han in red by Zhou Meng-fu, wonderland by Shen Mao, or ink bamboo of Qing-bi pavilion by Ke Jiu-si.

Decoration of pine tree on underglaze porcelains in Yuan dynasty tended to be realistic expression, involving trunk, bark, and close pine needles. Decoration of upstanding bamboo joints were mostly drawn with one stroke and a mat of four to five upward leaves were piled up cumulatively. While painting flowers, variation of shades didn’t achieve perfection on porcelain clay as on paper which is flat and has absorbency of ink. Thus, outline of flower petals was drawn with dark pigment and left white rim beneath contour before painting petals. These drawing techniques became common features, even the decorations of peony and lotus scrolls on underglaze porcelains in Yuan dynasty (1279-1368).

Design on underglaze-blue porcelains was vivid and lively on account of distinguish painting features and impression of painting pigment (Su-ma-li blue) from underglaze-blue porcelains in Yuan dynasty. However, artists of underglaze-blue porcelains were not as good as artists of Chinese painting in Yuan dynasty, who possessed dashing brushwork on pine tree, mountainous stone, and bamboo. Accordingly, it goes without saying that artists of underglaze-blue porcelains furthered their imagination and blended in Chinese painting features into porcelain design.








Picture originated from “Bamboo” by Ke Jiu-si of Yuan dynasty, Complete Collection of Jie-zi Garden painting, Tainan: Li-da, 1985, p.28.








Picture originated from “Short Pi-ma Cun Method”, Complete Collection of Jie-zi Garden painting, Tainan: Li-da, 1985, p.27.














Picture originated from “Mix Depict Method”,

Complete Collection of Jie-zi Garden painting,

Tainan: Li-da, 1985, p.249.







Mountainous stone was drawn by Cun method, which is the artful expression of the grain of mountainous stone after observation and studies by ancient artists of Chinese painting. The two porcelains on the pictures display “Pi-ma and Fu-pi Cun method”, which applies quadrate round and middle-size stroke on mountainous stone.




Collection of Museum in Hu-nan province.Picture originated from “Figure 181: Pear-shape bottle with underglaze-blue decoration of figure from Jingdezhen kiln” by Wang, Qing-zheng. Chinese Ceramics 11-Yuan, Part II, Taipei County: Ji-Nian, Jun. 2000, p.165.










Collection of DCL-Chinese Antique Research Department.






Mix Depict Method was applied on dress decoration and used light ink of large stokes painting dress with skillful contour. As well, arrow-shape bamboo leaves were drawn with a branch as a unit. Drawing method of bamboo joint used joint marking method, which highlights white bamboo knots by marking two ink dots of same tone at two sides of each joint.












Collection of DCL-Chinese Antique Research Department.


The first emperor of Ming dynasty (1368-1644), Zhu Yuan-Zhang, overthrew the Mongolian governance, and followed rules in Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) that arranging artists working for court, in spite of rebuilding painting agency as in Song dynasty (960-1279). From Xuan-de reign (1426-1435) to Hong-zi reign (1488-1505) of Ming dynasty, painting from court was thriving due to stable regime and emperor’s interest and promotion. Artist from that period aimed at pursuing artistic conception of brushwork or highlighting vigorousness and power by sophisticated strokes or powerful turns.

The most distinguish creation of Court painting in Ming dynasty is flowers and birds painting. Bian Wen-jin (Alias: Jin Zhou) is the most influential artist of flowers and birds painting in painting agency of Ming dynasty. He had characteristics of realistic style, neat outline, and brilliant color. He also focused on features of flowers and birds, especially on delicate expression of actions. “Three friends and hundred birds painting” is his representative work.

Yong-le (1403-1424) and Xuan-de (1426-1435) reigns of early Ming dynasty were also the prosperity of underglaze porcelains. Flowers and birds decorations were often seen on underglaze porcelains in this period, and mostly applied on large dish, flask, and so on. Those paintings on underglaze porcelains had orderly drawing, which differentiate from ordinary artisan, due to flowers and birds paintings of painting agency in early Ming dynasty and emperor’s interest. The formerly Chinese painting style reflected connection with decoration of underglaze porcelains.





Collection of the Palace Museum.Picture originated from “Figure 309: Flask with underglaze-blue decoration of clouds and dragon from Xuan-de reign of Ming dynasty” by Li Hui-bing. Appraisement Foundations of Chinese Porcelain, Beijing: Forbidden City, 2001, p.207.

Collection of DCL-Chinese Antique Research Department.






Decoration of clouds and dragon used small brush to outline before painting with color, and presented smooth lines that were slimmer than decorations of underglaze porcelains in Yuan dynasty (1279-1368). The stem was drawn with one upright stroke for decoration of flower scrolls and with round turns. The decoration of dragon in Ming dynasty (1368-1644) presented inflexible drawing and differentiates from daring features of dragon decoration in Yuan dynasty because of specification and simplicity of painting in Ming dynasty.




Collection of DCL-Chinese Antique Research Department.

V. Conclusion

Decoration of underglaze porcelains is under the impression as Chinese painting by porcelain material. No matter painting of figures or landscapes were seen on underglaze porcelains. Even though expression was restricted by clay, pigment, glaze, high temperature, and coarser representation, there is close relationship of painting style between underglaze porcelains and Chinese painting in each period. It provided very important proof and reference for judging production era or appraisement of antique porcelains.

VI. References

1. Su, Ying-hui. “Building image of history – Dunhuang wall painting in the position of Chinese Painting history” The National Palace Museum Monthly of Chinese Art No.2, Vol. 1, Issue 2, Taipei: Yu-tai, May 1983, 30-45.

2. Wang, Yao-ting. “Development of Chinese Painting through painting collection in the National Palace Museum” The National Palace Museum Monthly of Chinese Art No.39, Vol. 4, Issue 3, Taipei: Yu-tai, Jun.1986, 14-31.

3. Gao, Mu-sen. “The era meaning of the beauty of artistic conception” The National Palace Museum Monthly of Chinese Art No.132, Vol. 11, Issue 12. Taipei: National Palace Museum, Mar.1994, 26-39.

4. Chow, Chian-chiu/ Leung, Chen-ying. Chinese Painting- A Comprehensive Guide, Taipei: Art Book, Sep.1986, p.13.

5. Li-da Press Desk. “Ink bamboo by Ke Jiu-si of Yuan dynasty” Complete Collection of Jie-zi Garden painting, Tainan: Li-da, 1985, p.27.

6. Li-da Press Desk. “ Bamboo by Ke Jiu-si of Yuan dynasty” Complete Collection of Jie-zi Garden painting, Tainan: Li-da, 1985, p.28.

7. Li-da Press Desk. “Mix Depict Method” Complete Collection of Jie-zi Garden painting, Tainan: Li-da, 1985, p.249.

8. Zhang, Pu-sheng. Blue and White Porcelain Appraisement, Beijing: Beijing Library, Jan. 1995, 138-147.

9. Yang Xin, et al. Three Thousand years of Chinese Painting, Taipei: Lian-jing, Aug. 1999, p.203.

10. Wang, Qing-zheng. Chinese Ceramics 11-Yuan, Part II, Taipei County: Ji-Nian, Jun. 2000, p.165.

11. Li, Hui-bing. Appraisement Foundations of Chinese Porcelain, Beijing: Forbidden City, 2001, p.207.

12. “Basic brushwork of Chinese landscape painting” Chinese Painting Teaching, Study on Chinese Painting and Calligraphy Net. http://hk.geocities.com/lastwit/big5/edupaint/html/ch2.html

Comparison of iron rust spots of underglaze blue porcelains

◎ Underglaze blue porcelain◎

Imported pigment – Su-ma-li blue

An intertwined relationship connects imported pigment (Su-ma-li Blue), Jingdezhen, and underglaze-blue in Yuan dynasty. The primary use of imported Su-ma-li blue pigment was during late Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) and early Ming dynasty (1368-1644). In Wang, Shi-mao’s book “Kui-tian-wai-chen,” he describes Su-ma-li Blue used imported from West Asia, and stated “Our court specially established porcelain manufacture in Jingdezhen of Fuliang county. Imperial Porcelains made in Yong-le and Xuan-de reigns possessed the characteristics of frequently used sweet white color with orange peel effect, decorative pigment of Su-ma-li blue, and precious bright red color.” Su-ma-li blue pigment contains high concentration of iron and low concentration of manganese and is different from local pigment which contains high concentration of manganese and low concentration of iron. Due to the natural black of iron oxide, underglaze blue presents dense blue with black spots after firing. This is the most obvious feature of imported pigment, which presents gorgeous, pretty, dark, gradated, and diffused tinge. Under proper firing temperature, the pigment appears sapphire luster with black spots where there are silver spots in dark glazed area. Mostly, the more dark color underglaze blue presents, the more amount crystallized spots appear. Obvious iron rust spots of silver color are sometimes embedded into clay with uneven touch. These underglaze blue porcelains have been mainstream products in Jingdezhen since Yuan dynasty (1279-1368).

◎ Micrography and appraisement of genuine and fake porcelains◎

=> Photo A

= >Photo B

= > Magnification A

= > Magnification B

Source A: DCL-CARD / Meip’ing vase with underglaze blue decoration of clouds and dragons, Ming dynasty (1279-1368)

Source B: DCL-CARD / Modern phony-Shard of dish with underglaze blue decoration of figures, Yuan dynasty (1279-1368).

Illustration A: Su-ma-li blue pigment contains high amount of iron, so blackish or greenish brown iron rust spots remains on the surface of glaze. Iron rust spots of genuine porcelain formed gradually after hundred years. The spots naturally emerged and were embedded into clay. The slightly diffused spots usually appeared in deep glazing area and had vague borderline.

Illustration B: The imitation of Su-ma-li blue is adding iron oxide in pigment. The artificial material presents angular shape and has clear borderline with underglaze blue pigment. Fake iron rust spots didn’t have varied shades and distributed irregular both in shallow and deep glazing areas.

◎ Reference:

1. Zhang, Hong-wei. Ancient Chinese Ceramics Research, Vol. 10, Beijing: Forbidden City, 2004.
2. Zhang, Pu-sheng. Blue and White Porcelain Appraisement, Beijing: Beijing Library, Jan. 1995.
3. Liu Ru-shui. Appreciation of China, Taipei: Shuchuan, Aug. 2004.
4. Ma, Xi-gui. Chinese Blue and White Porcelain, Shanghai: Shanghai Gu Ji, 1999.
5. Yang Jia-luo. A record of Ceramics, Vol. 1&2, Taipei: World Bookstore, 1974.
6. Lan Pu/ Zheng, Ting-gui. Pottery Record of Jingdezhen, Shandong: Hua-bao, 2004.
7. She Cheng. Development of Blue and White Porcelain in Ming Dynasty and Art Research, Taipei: Wen Shi zhe, Mar. 1986.
8. Li, Hui-bing. Appraisement Foundations of Chinese Porcelain, Beijing: Forbidden City, 2001.
9. Liu, Liang You. Research of Antique Porcelain, Taipei: Youth Culture, Jan. 1988.
10. Zhu Yan. Pottery, 1774.

The variation of underglaze-blue and underglaze-red in Yuan and Ming dynasties. (1279-1644)

Foreword:

Chinese ceramics has been second to none all over the world and in the history of art. In the development of ceramics, porcelains in underglaze-blue and underglaze-red have been considered the most magnificent artifacts. By introducing the variation of underglaze-blue and underglaze-red in Yuan and Ming dynasties, it helps us to know the background knowledge and the uniqueness of porcelains. Porcelains in underglaze-blue represent the most orient characteristic at all times. Its elegance and beauty fascinate men’s eyes and its characteristics varied in different dynasties. During each period, the advance of craftsmanship, the variation of cobalt pigment, and the diversity of decoration style promote underglaze-blue porcelain to achieve the steadfast position in the history of Chinese art and culture. As well, porcelain in underglaze-red represents the most skillful underglaze artifact. Although the successful firing techniques of underglaze-red porcelain had been discovered in Yuan dynasty, underglaze-red porcelains of high quality are still rare and valuable to this day. Thus, the background knowledge about manufacture and craftsmanship of underglaze-blue and underglaze-red in Yuan and Ming dynasties will be introduced in this article. Underglaze-blue in Yuan dynasty will be introduced in next section.

I. Underglaze-blue in Yuan dynasty

Introduction

Porcelains in underglaze-blue started in Tang dynasty (618-907), but the golden age was in Yuan dynasty (1279-1368). Until 1929, underglaze-blue porcelain from Yuan dynasty had been noticed by a British, Mr. R. I. Hobson. He had discovered a vase with elephant handles and underglaze-blue decoration of clouds and dragons, and it is collected by Percival David Foundation in U.K. Since then, the studies of underglaze-blue porcelains from Yuan dynasty started the journey and spread worldwide. In the beginning of 1950’s, Dr. John Alexander Pope compared this vase with other underglaze-blue porcelains from the National Museum of Teheran and the topkapi palace museum. He then distinguished a batch of underglaze-blue porcelains from Yuan dynasty, and discovered the same features with this vase. He named those underglaze-blue porcelains “Zhi-Zheng Type”. Till then, underglaze-blue porcelains from Yuan dynasty had been recognized and valued by scholars and organizations of Chinese antique ceramics.

In addition, underglaze-blue porcelains are decorated with cobalt pigment before glazing. The most delicate underglaze-blue porcelains are manufactured from Jingdezhen (Ching-Te-Chen) in Yuan dynasty. In 1278, the imperial court of Yuan dynasty founded “Fuliang Ceramics Bureau” in Jingdezhen. “Fuliang Porcelain Bureau” was the only national administrative organization in charge of managing ceramics industry. The establishment was written in the eighty-eight volume of History of Yuan dynasty-numerous officers’ novel. It recorded “Fuliang Ceramics Bureau was instituted in 1278 as ninth level of official rank, and in charge of ceramics manufacture. Two administrators were appointed to Fuliang Ceramics Bureau.” This bureau was the specialized department of ceramic production for emperor and imperial court. It facilitated the booming of ceramic industries in Jingdezhen. Except kiln in Jingdezhen, there were kilns in Jian of Jiangxi province, Jiangshan of Zhejiang province, and Yuxi of Yuennan province for manufacturing underglaze-blue porcelain in Yuan dynasty. However, Jingdezhen had kilns at most and was the premier production center for underglaze-blue porcelains of high quality. Refine and exquisite porcelains were produced with steady, gorgeous, and bright color. The following statement by Jiang Qi of Yuan dynasty, which is taken from his book entitled “Tao-lun-fu” (Ceramics Study), mentioned the finest quality of porcelains from Jingdezhen. “There were more than three hundreds kilns in Jingdezhen. Ceramics were composed immaculate white as genuine jade.” In short, the following is introduction of underglaze-blue in Yuan dynasty, including classification, characteristics, pigment, and clay.

Classification

Underglaze-blue porcelains in Yuan dynasty can be divided into “Yan-you Type” and “Zhi-zheng Type” base on differences of cobalt pigment and decoration. The development was from “Yan-you Type” to “Zhi-zheng Type”.

A. Yan-you Type

Yan-you type of porcelains used native-made pigment, which presented light blue color, so decorations became broad with brief lines and focused on small wares. Jiujiang museum in Jiangxi province collects a typical ware of Yan-You Type, and it is tower-shape vase with underglaze-blue decoration of peony from a tomb in 1319. This vase presented slightly grayish blue, which was darken in the area of deepen and ended painting. The area accumulated some small brown drops and clear brown color appeared at dark glazing area.

B. Zhi-zheng Type

Zhi-zheng type was painted with imported pigment and appeared gorgeous color. Most decorations were intensive and had multi-layers on large wares. The typical ware is vase with elephant handles and underglaze-blue decoration of clouds and dragons collected by Percival David Foundation in U.K. This vase showed dense and gorgeous blue, and visible yellowish brown or sliver iron rust spots appeared at thick glazed area.

Characteristics

The early development of underglaze-blue porcelains in Yuan dynasty carried the characteristics of preceding generation, Song dynasty (960-1279). Porcelains were painted roughly on light and thin clay body. Small folk wares were produced in the majority. Native-made pigment was used for decoration, therefore presented dark grayish blue without iron rust spots. Later, porcelains were stepping into middle stage and developing to Yan-you type. At this time, quantity and advancement of porcelain manufacture were making huge progress. Underglaze-blue porcelains appeared to attain toward maturity after observing unearthed porcelains. Those porcelains had thinly clay body and started to use Ma-cang clay, which appeared slightly caesious and light white with obvious air holes. More to say, native-made, imported, and mixture of both pigments were applied on porcelains, which presented not only gorgeous color with dense black spots but dark gray without iron rust spots. At last, Zhi-zheng type turned out to be typical ware in late stage of development. The manufacture of underglaze-blue porcelains had reached its peak, and large wares with high quality were produced increasingly, mostly from Jingdezhen. Imported pigments were massively applied for decoration on entire ware. The multi-layer decoration is often painted with seven to nine layers, even ten layers.

Pigment

There is close relationship among imported pigment (Su-ma-li Blue), Jingdezhen, and underglaze-blue in Yuan dynasty (1279-1368). The imported pigment, Su-ma-li Blue, was mainly used in Yong-le and Xuan-de periods (1426-1435). The pigment was introduced to ancient China from West Asia region. The importation had been mentioned in the book, “Kui-tian-wai-chen”, which was written by Wang Shi-mao(1536-1588). He stated, “Our imperial court establishes specialized porcelain manufacture in Jingdezhen in Fuliang County. Imperial Porcelains made in Yong-le and Xuan-de periods were still highly valued to date. At that time, the most frequent produce was sweet white porcelains with orange peel effect. The most used pigment was Su-ma-li blue. The most precious porcelain was bright red porcelain.”

In early stage of Yuan dynasty, native-made pigment was used, but imported pigment “Su-ma-li blue” was adopted first by Jingdezhen in late Yuan and early Ming period. According to “Pottery Record of Ching-Te-Cheng” written by Lan Pu, he mentioned, “Su-ma-li blue was shipped from Southeast Asia or West”. Since then, underglaze-blue porcelains were the most famous and representative goods in Jingdezhen up to now. It showed that Su-ma-li blue made huge influence on underglaze-blue porcelains.

Clay

Before Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), clay that was used for porcelain manufacture made of porcelain stone. The clay had low fire durability and high changeability, so small wares were mainly made due to the clay features. After Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), Kaolin or China clay that was better used for porcelain manufacture was discovered in Ma village. The following statement by Lan Pu in his book “Pottery Record of Ching-Te-Cheng” mentioned, “Porcelain clay mainly came from Ma-cang village or called Ma village”. The Ma-cang clay (Clay from Ma-cang village) was generally called as kaolin nowadays. It was nearly running out during 1573 and 1620. Moreover, researchers had discovered that binary formula of clay was invented in Yuan dynasty. The formula was the mixture of porcelain stone and kaolin (formerly called Ma-cang clay). The invention increased durability of high temperature and steady formation of ware. It also raised hardness and transparency of clay, but reduced plasticity. For this reason, large wares adopted sectioned throwing and gluing. The innovational clay advantaged manufacturing high quality of large underglaze-blue porcelains.

II. Underglaze-blue in Ming dynasty

Introduction

The development of underglaze-blue porcelains in Ming dynasty was divided into three stages according to differences of pigment. There were early, middle, and late developments. The early development was during the reigns of Yong-le (1403-1424) and Xuan-de (1426-1435), and Su-ma-li blue pigment was applied. The middle development was during the reigns of Cheng-hua (1465-1487), Hong-zhi (1488-1505), and Zheng-de (1506-1521), and Ping-deng blue pigment was applied. At last, the late development was during the reigns of Jia-jing (1522-1566), Long-qing (1567-1572), and Wan-li (1573-1620), and Hui blue pigment was applied.

A. The early development

According to excavations and researches by Institute of Jingdezhen Ceramic Archaeology, pigment (Su-ma-li blue) used in Yuan dynasty lasted to Hong-wu reign (1368-1398) of early Ming dynasty. However, underglaze-blue presented different color due to differences of glaze, firing temperature, and firing atmosphere. At that time, war cut off transportation of imported pigment, so native-made pigment was adopted on porcelain manufacture. This made some porcelain had dark blue color. Underglaze-blue porcelains in Hong-wu reign (1368-1398) mostly had characteristics of heavy and thick clay body, dull color of glaze, blurry bluish gray tone, and dim pigment.

In Yong-le period (1403-1424), underglaze-blue porcelains used Su-ma-li blue. In the third volume of “Pottery”, it said “Imperial Porcelains made in Yong-le and Xuan-de reigns possessed the characteristics of frequently used sweet white color with orange-peel effect, decorative pigment of Su-ma-li blue, and precious bright red color.” Gao Lian, the author of “Zun-sheng-ba-Jian”, stated “Pigement used in Xuan-de kiln was Su-bo-ni blue”. The literature, “History of Ming dynasty”, mentioned that eunuch Zheng He made the voyage to the Western Ocean in 1405. This travel exported trade porcelains from Yuan and Ming dynasties, and imported pigment from Southeast Asia and West Asia. The imported pigment was Su-ma-li blue, whose name varied due to different transliteration, but actually meant the same pigment.

Since then, the imported pigment, Su-ma-li blue, was used in Yong-le period (1403-1424). This pigment contained low concentration of manganese and reduced purple and red tone in blue color. When firing climate was properly perfect, gorgeous sapphire porcelains were produced. Nevertheless, Su-ma-li blue pigment also contained high concentration of iron, and made black spots appear on decorative lines. The decorative lines were diffused, blur, and obviously embedded into clay body.

Furthermore, underglaze-blue porcelains were beautiful and elegant in Xuan-de period (1426-1435). Xuan-de kiln was evaluated in “Study of Antique Bronze and Ceramic Wares” by Liang Tong-shu. It said, “Xuan-de kiln had excellence in pigment, ware form, decoration, and inscription.” Another example by Zhang Ying-wen in “Treasures from Qing Dynasty” illustrated “Xuan-de wares were fine and thick, having the surface effect of an orange peel.” It also said, “Underglaze-blue porcelains used Su-bo-ni blue for decorating dragons, phoenixes, flowers, birds, insects, fishes, and so on. The decorations looked cubic, multi-layer, and lovely.”

Besides, the biggest distinction between Xuan-de (1426-1435) and Yong-le (1403-1424) porcelains is the penetrating spots of blue, which is obvious apparent on underglaze-blue porcelains from Xuan-de period. There were also iron rust spots scattered on the surface of ware and they looked patchy and thrifty. It was also the penetrating iron rust spots mentioned in “Note of Na kiln”. Many delicate and compact underglaze-blue porcelains were produced in Xuan-de (1426-1435) and Yong-le (1403-1424) period. Large dishes and bowls were neat with lesser changeability.

B. The middle development

In Cheng-hua period (1465-1487), a few underglaze-blue porcelains made in early period contained black spots due to Su-ma-li blue pigment. Products which were large manufactured with typical form were famous for graceful blue. Furthermore, imported pigment (Su-ma-li blue) and native-made pigment (Ping-deng blue) were applied on the same ware. Ping-deng blue pigment contained low concentration of iron and high concentration of manganese. Thus, the pigment presented graceful and steady color. According to the third volume of “Pottery”, it mentioned “Su-ni-bo blue pigment used for underglaze-blue wares in Xuan-de kiln exhausted in Cheng-hua period (1465-1487)”. From the statement, Su-ma-li blue pigment had use up and was displaced by native-made pigment, Ping-deng blue. Due to the low concentration of iron, there were not black spots exited on porcelains. Then, the common characteristics of underglaze-blue porcelains from Cheng-hua period (1465-1487) were thin clay body, bright white glaze, and graceful blue.

In Hong-zhi period (1488-1505), the color of underglaze-blue was similar to Cheng-hua period (1465-1487). Both had features of thin clay body, exquisite glaze quality, clear and bright white clay, and glassy glaze with slight green tint. Yet the glaze quality in Cheng-hua period (1465-1487) was sleeker and smoother than Hong-zhi period (1488-1505). On the other hand, underglaze-blue porcelains in Hong-zhi period (1488-1505) were similar to early stage of Zheng-de period (1506-1521). Nevertheless, porcelains in Zheng-de period (1506-1521) presented less pure color than in Hong-zhi period (1488-1505). The reason was that Ping-deng blue was nearly using up. Therefore, native-made pigment was mixed with other pigments in late stage of Zheng-de period (1506-1521). It made underglaze-blue porcelains from Zheng-de period (1506-1521) present grayish blue color. Besides, the porcelains had characteristics of thick and heavy clay body, bluish glaze, and dense air bubbles in glaze layers.

C. The late development

It was recorded in “Note of Na kiln” that “Jia-jing kiln used Hui blue, which presented dense and gorgeous color”. This attested Hui blue pigment was used in Jia-jing reign (1522-1566). Hui blue pigment contained the lowest concentration of iron, so there were not black spots on underglaze-blue porcelains in Jia-jing period (1522-1566) but in Xuan-de (1426-1435) and Yong-le (1403-1424) period. Moreover, Hui blue pigment contained the highest concentration of manganese, so underglaze-blue porcelains appeared dense and gorgeous color with slight red and purple. Underglaze-blue in Jia-jing period (1522-1566) used not only Hui blue pigment, but mixed with Shi-zi blue from Rui province. “Jiangxi Da Zhi” recorded Hui blue presented different color due to different additional ingredients.

In Long-qing period (1567-1572), the style of underglaze-blue porcelains basically was extended from Jia-jing period (1522-1566). Hui blue pigment was still applied on porcelains. However, nearly exhausted Ma-cang clay had lower quality and influenced color of porcelain clay, which appeared slight blue, slight green or slight yellow, etc. After that, underglaze-blue porcelains in early stage of Wan-li period (1573-1620) had the same style as in Jia-jing period (1522-1566). Nevertheless, there is obvious difference between blue tones in both periods. After Jia-jing period (1522-1566), amount of Hui blue pigment was decreasing rapidly because of large manufacture and requirement. Thus, Hui-blue pigment was preciously used due to deficient source. In middle stage of Wan-li period (1573-1620), underglaze-blue porcelains used Zhe pigment from Zhe-jiang province. Those porcelains presented slightly grayish blue and expressed calm impression.

III. Influence of kiln temperature on underglaze-blue color

Formation of porcelains required proper temperature, so variety of firing temperature influenced underglaze-blue quality a lot. From 1955 to 1956, a test on underglaze-blue pigment was launched by Institute of Jingdezhen Ceramic Archaeology and Institute of Metallurgy and Ceramics of Chinese Science Academy. Some representative formula was tested at different temperatures. The result was listed below.

(This result was only for reference. There might be gap due to two firing kilns. Samples which were fired at 1280 degrees centigrade were tested in large type of firewood kiln in Jingdezhen. On the other hand, samples which were fired at 1350 degrees centigrade were tested in small type of coal kiln in Institute of Metallurgy and Ceramics of Chinese Science Academy in Shanghai. )

IV Underglaze-red

Underglaze-red porcelains were the important and innovative technique invented by artificers in Jingdezhen in Yuan dynasty. The craft and process were almost the same as underglaze-blue. Underglaze-red was decorated with copper red pigment on white clay body before glazing glassy glaze. After firing in kiln, the porcelains became underglaze-red porcelains.

The development of underglaze-red was much later than underglaze-blue. Successful manufacture of underglaze-red porcelains required not only appropriate firing atmosphere but perfect proportion of glaze, which related to the concentration of copper element and the efficient inducement of copper red pigment in glaze. Successful underglaze-red porcelains were developed in Jingdezhen till Yuan dynasty (1279-1368). Sensitive nature of copper red pigment during the firing process had led to imperfect color and undesirable smears of line works. Copper became rather unstable and easily volatilizes as temperature rises over 1250℃. High concentration of copper led to blackish red color, and low firing temperature let to gray color. Thus, pure and bright red underglaze-red porcelains are rare and precious. Although underglaze-red porcelains were scarce in Yuan dynasty, delicate underglaze-red porcelains of high quality were still mastered. For example, a covered jar with underglaze-red decoration is regarded as the top porcelain in Yuan dynasty for its gorgeous red, and is now stored in Wu county of Jiangsu province. The jar was decorated with three sets of decorations on body and white dragon on red ware belly.

In Ming dynasty, underglaze-red porcelains appeared grayish red in Hong-wu period (1368-1398). An antique used in Hong-wu period (1368-1398) had been excavated from the Palace Museum site of Ming dynasty in Nanjing. It was ancient eaves tile made of white porcelain and used for palace. The tile was molded with dragon and phoenix decoration and then glazed over with red glaze. Even though the red color appeared dark and grayish, the tile was put to use on palace. It proved that the techniques of underglaze-red porcelain and red glaze manufacture were immature in early Ming dynasty. After Yong-le (1403-1424) and Xuan-de (1426-1435) periods, underglaze-red or red glazed wares were still deficient in temperature control and glaze proportion, but some excellent and gorgeous ruby wares were still produced. The following statement in “Zun-sheng-ba-Jian” mentioned the maturity of underglaze-red porcelains. It stated “A cup with underglaze-red decoration of fishbone was made in Xuan-de period (1426-1435). Its ruby pigment decorated fish shape over white clay body, and presented glittering and gorgeous red that was superior to purplish black.” The statement mentioned that manufacture craft had reached its maturity at that time. After the middle stage of Ming dynasty, the techniques were declining and few underglaze-red wares were produced, mostly small wares with grayish color. Only wares in Cheng-hua period (1465-1487) presented bright and dense red, and were excellent enough to compete with Yong-le (1403-1424) and Xuan-de (1426-1435) periods. In late Ming dynasty, underglaze-red wares were only manufactured in imperial kilns. Folk kilns manufactured few amount of underglaze-red wares and mostly small wares.

Until Kang-xi reign (1661-1722) of Qing dynasty, the production of underglaze-red porcelains was rebuilt and constructed higher level over Ming dynasty. Basically, the firing techniques and steadiness of coloration were skillfully mastered by artificers. In Yong-zheng (1723-1736) and Qian-long (1736-1795) periods, bright and gorgeous underglaze-red wares presented clear decoration with light and heavy tones. Techniques of manufacturing underglaze-red porcelains had reached success and maturity, and were superior to dynasties after Jia-qing period (1796-1820).

V. Reference:

1. Zhang, Hong-wei. Ancient Chinese Ceramics Research, Vol. 10, Beijing: Forbidden City, 2004.

2. Zhang, Pu-sheng. Blue and White Porcelain Appraisement, Peking: Peking Library, Jan. 1995.

3. Liu Ru-shui. Appreciation of China, Taipei: Shuchuan, Aug. 2004.

4. Ma, Xi-gui. Chinese Blue and White Porcelain, Shanghai: Shanghai Gu Ji, 1999.

5 Yang Jia-luo. A record of Ceramics, Vol. 1&2, Taipei: World Book, 1974.

6. Lan Pu/ Zheng, Ting-gui. Pottery Record of Ching-Te-Cheng, Shandong: Hua-bao, 2004.

7 She Cheng. Development of Blue and White Porcelain in Ming Dynasty and Art Research, Taipei: Wen Shi zhe, Mar. 1986.

8. Artist Reference Book Committee. Chinese Ceramics, Ching Dynasty, Taipei: Artist, 1983.

9. Li, Hui-bing. Appraisement Foundations of Chinese Porcelain, Beijing: Forbidden City, 2001.

10. Liu, Liang You. Research of Antique Porcelain, Taipei: Youth Culture, Jan. 1988.

11. Chen, Qing-guang. “Covered jar with underglaze-red decoration of dragon from Yuan dynasty”. The National Palace Museum Monthly of Chinese Art No.4, Vol. 1, Issue 4. Taipei: National Palace Museum, Jul.1983, 90-91.

12. Kang, Xiao-bai. “Illustration of porcelains from Yong-le and Xuan-de period”. The National Palace Museum Monthly of Chinese Art No.40, Vol. 4, Issue 4, Taipei: Yu-tai, Jul. 1986, 47-54.

13. Zhu Yan. Pottery, 1774.

14. “Craft of underglaze-blue porcelains preparation”. Ceramic Art -Antique Ceramic Study, Chinese Ceramics Information Source Net, .